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Differences of Sex Development & Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals
Differences of Sex Development (DSD) refers to a group of congenital conditions involving variations in chromosomal, gonadal, hormonal and/or anatomical sex development including intersex conditions. The term Disorders of Sex Development also appears frequently in medical literature, although using the term "differences" as opposed to "disorders" is preferred.
DSD is a group of conditions in which there is a discrepancy between the external (outside) genitals (penis, scrotum, vulva, labia) and the internal (inside) genitals (testes, vagina, ovaries). Intersex is an older term for DSD. For a more complete definition, click on the below links.
There is a substantial body of research examining whether exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) during fetal development can alter sexual differentiation, reproductive anatomy, hormone signaling and genital development.
2025 Study
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Endocrine-disrupting chemicals and reproductive health: With focus on the developmental window of susceptibility
2025 Study
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Association between endocrine disruptors and surgical congenital malformations: Systematic review and meta-analysis
2024 Study
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The Association between Maternal Endocrine-Disrupting Chemical Exposure during Pregnancy and the Incidence of Male Urogenital Defects
An important distinction is that although environmental hormone disrupting chemicals have been linked to certain reproductive developmental abnormalities, that does not definitively establish that they cause intersex variations or DSD conditions.
Phthalates (DEHP, DBP, DiNP)
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Hypospadias, cryptorchidism, anogenital distance, altered androgen signaling
Bisphenols (BPA, BPS, BPF)
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Estrogen receptor signaling, reproductive development, steroid hormone production
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32714277/
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30623888/
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31995776/
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30270299/
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27421580/
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27230799/
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38303976/
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37986566/
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27660460/
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26602963/
- https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12757584/
Pesticides & Herbicides (DDT, DDE, Vinclozolin)
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Antiandrogenic effects, altered sexual differentiation, reproductive abnormalities
Forever Chemicals: Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS, PFOA, PFOS)
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Reproductive hormone changes and developmental effects